
INFERS 




HTH -GRADE 



THE TUFTS COLLEGE T!U:S8 
( q o q 




GRAMMAR FOR 
THINKERS 



IN THE EIGHTH GRADE 



TRUE W. WHITE, M. A, 



TUFTS COLLEGE, MASS, 

THE TUFTS COLLEGE PRESS 

1909 



TE/lil 




Copyright, 1909 
By The Tufts College Press 



(cfiUQ. /f.Wl 

CI. A 24 GO 7 5 
AUi 17 1909 






* INTRODUCTION. 



This book was prepared for the next to the last 
year in the Grammar School. It is assumed that 
the pupils have already learned to recognize the 
eight Parts of Speech. They may be reviewed with 
the aid of sections 40, 66, 82, 95, 101, 106, 108 
and 109. 

The book does not take the place of continued 
practice in the speaking and writing of good Eng- 
lish. Technical Grammar is a study in Logic. Its 
first value is as a drill in accurate thinking. Later 
on it will enable the student to know what form of 
a word is correct instead of guessing what form 
"sounds right." Meanwhile, Grammar ought to be 
found to be stimulating and interesting for its own 
sake. To accomplish this, the pupil must study out 
every lesson for himself. Being told by the teacher 
is useless ; the mere reciting of words is worse. 
He must think, until he understands. If he does 
this, he will enjoy the study, and at the end of 
the year he will be ready to take up advanced 
Grammar and Rhetoric, or any foreign language. 



GRAMMAR FOR THINKERS 
In the Eighth Grade. 



I. 

ANALYSIS. 
§1. LANGUAGE is a means of showing thoughts. 

Note. — All creatures seem to use a Natural Language. How 
does a bird show its thoughts and feelings? A kitten? A 
dog? A monkey? 

Only Human beings use Verbal Language. The more in- 
telligent the man, the more accurately does he speak and 
write. The most highly civilized races have the best lan- 
guages. The English Language is one of the noblest of 
all languages. 

§2. All verbal language is made up of Sentences. 

A SENTENCE is a group of words that shows 
a thought about something. 

The first letter of a sentence is a Capital. 

Read a paragraph from your History, and count the 
sentences. 



6 

§3. A DECLARATIVE Sentence shows the 
thought as a statement. 

It ends with a Period. 
Example. — The class is quiet. 
Count the Declarative sentences in §7. 

§4. An IMPERATIVE Sentence shows the 
thought as a command. 

It ends with a Period. 

Example. — Be quiet. 

Count the Imperative sentences in §7. 









§5. An INTERROGATIVE Sentence shows the 
thought as a question. 

It ends with an Interrogation Point. 

Example. — Is the class quiet? 

Count the Interrogative sentences in §7. 

§6. An EXCLAMATORY Sentence shows the 
thought with sudden or strong emotion. 

It ends with an Exclamation Point. 
Example. — How quiet the class is ! 
Count the Exclamatory sentences in §7. 



7 

§7. a. Their hearts throb with excitement. 

b. The minute-men faced the British. 

c. Hang your hat on the peg. 

d. Do you know the meaning of study? 

e. He hates our sacred nation ! 

f. Abraham Lincoln was a poor boy. 

g. People sometimes call Boston "The Hub." 
h. Nero was very cruel to the early Chris- 
tians. 

i. Snow-flakes, which are frozen vapor, show 

many beautiful forms, 
j. The coward denied that he did it. 



§8. Every sentence has a SUBJECT and a 
PREDICATE. 

(In an Imperative Sentence the subject is usually 
implied. ) 

§9. The SUBJECT of a sentence shows what 
the thought is about. 



It is a noun or its equivalent. 



8 

§10. The PREDICATE of a sentence shows 
what is thought about the subject. 

It is a verb or contains a verb. 

Read the (complete) Subject and the (complete) Pred- 
icate of each sentence in §7. In c, the subject is implied; 
what is it? 



§11. Some verbs can not, by themselves, form 
predicates, but need other words to complete the 
sense. There are three kinds of such complements. 

§12. An OBJECT COMPLEMENT is a noun 
or its equivalent, which names what receives the 
action shown by the verb. 

Example. — Cats catch mice. 

Write the Object Complements in §7. 

§13. An OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT is a 
noun or an adjective, which completes the verb and 
describes the object complement. 

Examples. — They made the ship strong. 

They called the ship the Kearsarge. 

Write the Objective Complements in §7. 



§14. An ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENT is a 
noun or an adjective which completes the verb and 
describes the subject. 

Examples, — The ship is strong. 

The ship is called the Kearsarge. 

Write the Attribute Complements in §7. 

§15. The GRAMMATICAL, or SIMPLE, Sub- 
ject and Predicate are the bare noun and verb, with 
complements if any, which form the essential parts 
of the sentence. 

Write the Grammatical Predicates in §7. 

§16. The LOGICAL, or COMPLETE, Subject 
and Predicate are the Grammatical Subject and 
Predicate, together with all the words, phrases and 
clauses that modify them. 

§17. A PHRASE is a group of words used like 
a single word. 

In Grammar, a Phrase is a preposition and its 
accompanying zvord. 

Select the (prepositional) phrases in §7. 



IO 

§18. A (dependent) CLAUSE is a group of 
words containing a subject and a predicate, but 
used like a single word. 

Example. — Men that are honest are respected. 
Select the (dependent) clauses in §7. 

§19. An ADJECTIVE WORD, PHRASE or 
CLAUSE, is one that is used like an adjective. 



§20. An ADVERBIAL PHRASE or CLAUSE 
is one that is used like an adverb. 



§21. A SUBSTANTIVE WORD, PHRASE or 
CLAUSE is one that is used like a noun. 

Example. — They wished that he would come. 

Tell the kind (adjective, adverbial or substantive) of each 
phrase and clause in §7. 



§22. ANALYSIS means (( a taking apart in order 
to examine." To Analyze a sentence is to separate 
it into its parts, showing the subject and the pred- 
icate, and the use of every other word, phrase or 
clause. 



II 

§23. The following Outline indicates a good arrange- 
ment for the analysis of sentences : 

1 . Kind of Sentence, 

2. Grammatical Subject. 

3. Grammatical Predicate (Complements if any). 

4. Modifiers of Subject. 

5. Modifiers of Predicate. 

6. Complete Subject and Complete Predicate. 

§24. Following the above Outline, analyze the sentences 
in §7, like this Model: 

"The brave soldiers obeyed the command of their 
captain." 

1. This is a declarative sentence (because it 

shows a thought as a statement). 

2. The Grammatical Subject is soldiers (because 

it shows what the thought is about). 

3. The Grammatical Predicate is obeyed com- 

mand (because it shows what is thought 
about soldiers). Obeyed is the verb, and 
command is the Object Complement (be- 
cause it names what receives the action). 

4. Soldiers is modified by the adjective words, 

the and BRAVE. 

5. Command is modified by the adjective word, 

the, and by the adjective phrase, of their 

CAPTAIN. 

6. The Complete Subject is The brave soldiers, 

and the Complete Predicate is obeyed the 

COMMAND OF THEIR CAPTAIN. 



12 

§25. Analyze the following sentences : 

a. Nature hates peeping. 

b. The clouds have faces. 

c. A gentleman makes no noise. 

d. A lady is serene. 

e. Wonderful is the charm of Beauty. 

f. Hitch your wagon to a star. 

g. The mountain and the squirrel had a 

quarrel. 

h. The former called the latter little prig. 

i. You cannot recall the spoken word. 

j. Flowers and fruits are always fit presents. 

Notes. — What word in e is very emphatic, and what makes 
it so? 

In g, notice the grammatical subject carefully; also in /. 
Each may be called a compound subject. 

§26. a. The famous Alexandrine library was 
burned by zealots. 

b. In the analysis of a sentence, think, think, 

think. 

c. Why will people exaggerate so? 

d. Madam de Stael calls beautiful architec- 

ture frozen music. 

e. Every stalk and bud and flower displays 

a beautiful harmony. 



13 

f. Coal of all kinds has originated from the 

decay of plants. 

g. Both friend and foe applauded. 

h. By the streets of By and By, one arrives 
at the house of Never. 

i. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and 
lovable. 

j. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning- 
rod. 

Note. — Call was burned, in a, a single verb. 



§27. An APPOSITIVE is an adjective modifier 
that explains or emphasizes the noun or pronoun 
modified, and names the same person or thing. 

// it consists of more than one zvord it usually 
is set off by commas. 

Example. — Washington, the first President, was 
a Virginian. 

Select the appositives in §28. 

§28. Analyze the following, thinking but not reciting the 
reasons. 

a. "Evangeline," a tale of Acadia, was writ- 

ten by Longfellow. 

b. Pride in dress or beauty betrays a weak 

mind. 

c. Sheridan himself was in the charge. 



d. TEsop, the author of TEsop's Fables, was 

a slave. 

e. Living toads are sometimes found in the 

middle of huge rocks. 

f. The second President, John Adams, lived 

in Quincy. 

g. Clouds are collections of vapor in the air. 

h. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. 

i. William the Conqueror invaded England 
in 1066. 

j. Hark! Do ye not hear it? 

Notes. — i. Call William the Conqueror, one noun, 
j. Call hark an interjection. 

§29. a. He went a private, and came back a cap- 
tain. 

b. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the 

shores of the United States by the blue- 
ness of its waters. 

c. The first observatory in Europe was 

erected at Seville by the Saracens. 

d. The hero of the Book of Job came from a 

strange land and of a strange parentage. 

e. The apple tastes and smells delicious. 

f. Polonius thought Hamlet really insane, 

g. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived ty- 

ranny. 



15 

h. The highest outcome of culture is a sim- 
ple city 

i. They saluted him as chief. 

j. The analysis of a sentence depends on its 
meaning as well as its form. 

Notes. — Select all the conjunctions in above, and think 
what they connect. 

a. See §14. 

j. Call "as well as" one conjunction. What single word 
could be substituted? 

§30. A VERBAL is a form of a verb that is not 
used as a predicate. 

It is used as a noun, an -adjective, or a phrase. 

A verbal may have a complement, like a true verb. 

Examples. — Drawing trains the hand. 

The map, drawn on the black-board, 
showed the position of the armies. 

Are you able to draw a circle? 

Select the verbals in §31, and think how each is used. 

§31. Analyze the examples in §30, and the following 
sentences : 

a. Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again. 

b. Facts learned in youth are often remem- 

bered in old age. 

c. A fault confessed is half redressed. 



i6 



d. The Puritans desired to obtain religious 

freedom. 

e. To live is not the whole of life. 

f. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit 

aid for the Colonies. 

g. The Romans, having conquered the earth, 

were unable to conquer themselves. 

h. Sheridan, hearing the guns, galloped from 
Winchester to take command. 

i. In fancy I see the farmers chasing the red- 
coats down the road, pausing only to 
fire and load. 

j. God moves in a mysterious way, his won- 
ders to perform. 

Notes. — In c, what part of speech is half? 

In d, to obtain is a verbal phrase; how is it used? 

In /, what does to solicit modify? Then what kind of 
verbal phrase is it? 

In i, there is a compound phrase. 

Analyze : 

§32. a. Always take time to do your best. 

b. His friends grieved to hear of his failure. 

c. It does not pay to worry. 

d. By invariably speaking the truth, you will 

command esteem. 

e. India-rubber is the thickened juice of a 

tree growing in South America. 



i7 

f. Thousands flocked to Jerusalem to hear 

Him. 

g. Is not a miser to be pitied? 

h. Having one's own way does not always 
insure happiness. 

i. The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, 
but in ourselves. 

j. Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then, 

Bowed with her fourscore years and ten. 

Notes. — (a) What does the verbal phrase "to do" modify? 
Think, "what to do?" 

(c) "To worry" is a verbal phrase used as an appositive. 

(g) "To be pitied" performs what office in the sentence? 

(i) "Brutus" is used independently. 

(j) "Years" is modified by a compound adjective expres- 
sion. 

§33. A SIMPLE SENTENCE shows a single 
thought; it has only one subject and one predicate. 

Example — Josephine is a good scholar. 

§34. A COMPLEX SENTENCE shows a prin- 
cipal thought and a subordinate thought. 

It contains a {dependent or subordinate) clause. 

Example. — Josephine is a good scholar because she 
studies hard. 

Note. — In analyzing complex Sentences, be very careful 
to distinguish the principal Proposition from the subordinate 



clause. After analyzing the former, analyze the clause as if 
it were a simple sentence. Analyze the above example. 



§35. A COMPOUND SENTENCE shows two 
or more independent thoughts, which are joined 
together. 

It contains tzuo or more subjects and predicates. 

Example. — Josephine is a good scholar, and she 
is always good-natured. 

Analyze : 

§36. a. Farmers make hay while the sun shines. 

b. He who conquers himself is a true hero. 

c. "Labor conquers all things" is an old 

maxirrL 

d. We know that Whitney invented the 

cotton-gin. 

e. Where thou goest, I will go. 

f. The house where Shakespeare lived still 

stands. 

g. We get silk from a caterpillar, which is 

called the silk-worm. 

h. The sugar-cane is pressed between heavy 
rollers until all the juice runs out. 

i. The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled. 



19 

j. He who ascends to mountain tops shall 
find 
The loftiest peaks most wrapt in clouds 
and snow. 

. Note. — What, who, that, etc., are connectives, serving to 
introduce the clauses. 

§37. a. If ye love me, keep my commandments. 

b. Every art was practiced to make them 

pleased with their own condition. 

c. My soul is an enchanted boat. 
Which, like a sleeping swan, doth float 
Upon the silent waves of thy sweet sing- 
ing. 

d. We are going to Chicago to visit some 

friends. 

e. "Will you walk into my parlor?" 
'Said the spider to the fly. 

f. There was a little boy, named Ned. 

g. Work while the day lasts. 

h. To see such happiness makes one glad. 

i. If you have nothing sensible to say, keep 
quiet. 

j. He who by usury increaseth his substance, 
shall gather it for him that will pity the 
poor. 

Notes. — (f) What is the grammatical subject? 
"There" is merely an "introductory word." A verbal ad- 
jective may have an attribute complement. 



20 



§38. A compound sentence is like two or more simple 
sentences ; each proposition is analyzed as if it were a sim- 
ple sentence. 

a. The sun rises, and the fogs disappear. 

b. Prosperity makes friends, but adversity 

tries them. 

c. A man perfects himself by working. 

d. Who is this man, and what does he want? 

e. The mosquito is our deadly enemy; and 

is he not a very troublesome one? 

f. Power works easily, but fretting is a per- 

petual confession of weakness. 

g. The many make the household, 
But only one, the home. 

h. The avalanche came rushing down the 
mountainside, and the boy was in its 
path. 

i. There is no death ; what seems so is 
transition. 

j. Thus, to relieve the wretched was his 
pride, 
And even his failings leaned to virtue's 
side 

Notes. — g. Supply a word. 

i. The last subject is a clause. 
j. What does Thus connect? 



21 



§39. a. Now fades the glimmering landscape on 
the sight, 
And all the air a solemn stillness holds. 

b. Recollect that trifles make perfection, and 

that perfection is no trifle. 

c. Mountain and lake and valley a sacred 

legend know. 

d. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 
Our hearts in glad surprise 

To higher levels rise. 

e. I slept and dreamt that life was Beauty; 
I woke and found that life was Duty. 

f. Count that day lost whose low-descending 

sun 
Views from thy hand no worthy action 
done. 

g. Oh ! did we but know when we are happy ! 

h. We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What workmen wrought thy ribs of steel. 

i. John Ericsson had lately completed his in- 
vention of the turret ship ; and a few 
hours after the Merrimac's victory the 
famous Monitor appeared in Hampton 
Roads. 

j. The face you wear, the thoughts you 
bring, 
A heart may heal or break. 



22 



II. 

PARSING. 

§40. A NOUN (derived from the Latin word 
"nomen," meaning a "name") is a word used as a 
name for a person or a thing. 

Examples. — John, boy, city, Boston. 

§41/ A COMMON NOUN is a word used as a 
name common to several persons or things. 

Examples. — boy, city. 

§42. A PROPER NOUN is a word used as a 
name, the especial property of some one person or 
thing. 

It is written with a Capital. 
Examples. — John. Boston. 

§43. A COLLECTIVE NOUN is a word used 
as a name for a number of persons or things, col- 
lected in one whole. 

Examples. — school, company.. 



23 

§44. An ABSTRACT NOUN is a word used as 
a name for a quality, considered apart from any 
object to which it may belong. 

Examples. — redness, wisdom, beauty. 

§45. A VERBAL NOUN is a form of a verb 
used as a noun. 

Examples. — loving, drawing, to study. 

§46. EXERCISE. State the class of each noun in §38 
and §39, and the reason. 

Example. — boy is a common noun, because it is a 
name common to several persons (or things). 

§47. GENDER is a distinction in nouns (and in 
pronouns), which corresponds to the sex of the per- 
son or thing named. 

§48. Words used to name males are of the MAS- 
CULINE GENDER. 

Examples. — John ; boy. 

§49. Words used to name females are of the 
FEMININE GENDER. 

Examples. — Mary, girl. 



24 

§50. Words used to name things that are neither 
male nor female, are of the NEUTER GENDER. 

Examples. — house, stone. 

Note. — Words, like child, cat, pupil, that may name either 
males or females, are sometimes called Common in Gender. 
In sentences, the meaning usually is evident ; when it is not, 
it is as well to say nothing about the gender. 

§51. EXERCISE. Write in separate columns the Mas- 
culine, the Feminine, and the Neuter Nouns in §32, omitting 
any whose gender you can not tell. 

§52. GENDER FORMS. Two words that 
mean the same except for the sex of the person or 
thing named, are called different forms of the same 
zvord. Sometimes the two forms are really different 
words; bat often the Feminine is formed by adding 
ess or some other syllable to the Masadine. 

Examples. — boy, girl ; author, authoress ; actor, 
actress. 

§53. EXERCISE. Write the feminine forms of the 
following nouns, and explain the formation of as many as 
you can : 

host, Jew, waiter, hero, enchanter, tiger, Louis, 
Joseph, papa, brother, negro, king, steward, man. 

Note. — You can find all these if you think long enough. 
Do not ask to be told. 



25 

§54. NUMBER is a distinction in nouns (and 
in pronouns), which corresponds to the number of 
persons or things named. When a noun (or pro- 
noun) names only one person or thing, it is in the 
SINGULAR NUMBER; when it names more than 
one it is in the PLURAL NUMBER. 

§55. PLURAL FORMS, (a) Most nouns form 
their plurals by adding s to the singular, (b) Nouns 
ending in s, sh ch, or x, and some nouns ending 
in y, o, or f, form their plurals by adding es to the 
singular. In such cases the y is changed to i, or the 
f to v. (c) Many nouns have irregular plurals. 

Notes. — Some nouns have no singular, some have no plural, 
and some have the same form for both numbers. 



§56. Write the PLURALS of the following nouns, and 
be ready to recite the rules for each : 
river, dish, box, hero, studio, day, study, loaf, deer, 
Detroit, scissors. 



§57. CASE is a distinction in nouns (and in pro- 
nouns), which depends on their use in the sentence. 
There are three cases, the NOMINATIVE, the 
POSSESSIVE, and the OBJECTIVE. 



26 

§58. CASE FORMS. The Nominative and the 
Objective forms of a noun are the same. The Pos- 
sessive is formed by adding J s (an apostrophe and s) 
to the Nominative, except the Possessive of plurals 
ending in s, which omits the last s. 

§59. DECLENSION is an orderly statement of 

the number and case forms of a noun (or pronoun). 

Examples. — 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. boy boy s 

Poss. boys boy s 3 

Obj. boy boy s 

§60. Write the declension of the nouns in §56. 

§61. RULES FOR CASE. A noun or a pronoun 
used as the subject or attribute complement of a 
predicate verb, is in the NOMINATIVE CASE. 

A noun or a pronoun used as an object comple- 
ment, or objective complement, or as the object of a 
preposition, is in the OBJECTIVE CASE. 

A noun or a pronoun used as an adjective modifier, 
showing possession, source or fitness, is in the 
POSSESSIVE CASE. 

Note. — A Possessive is equivalent to a phrase. Thus, "the 
cat's fur" means "the fur of the cat." 



2 7 

An appositive is in the same case as the word that it 
explains. 

§62. To PARSE a word is to give an orderly 
statement of its class, form, and use in the sentence. 

The following OUTLINE indicates a good arrangement 
for parsing a noun : 

1. Class. 

2. Gender. 

3. Declension. 

4. Number. 

5. Case. 

6. Use. 

§63. Following the above outline, parse in full the nouns 
in §25 and §26, like this model : 

"The boy ate the apple." Apple is a common 
noun {because it is a name common to several 
things). It is neuter gender {because it means 
something neither male nor female). Declined: 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. apple apple s 

Poss. apple } s apple s } 

Obj. apple apple s 

It is in the singular number {because it names only 
one thing). It is Objective case, being object com- 
plement of ATE. 



28 

§64. ADDITIONAL RULES FOR CASE. 

(a) A noun or a pronoun used, alone or with 
another word, absolutely independent of the rest 
of the sentence, is called NOMINATIVE INDE- 
PENDENT or NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

Examples. — Rover, come here. (Nominative Inde- 
pendent.) 

Rover coming, we walked along. 
(Nominative Absolute.) 

(b) A noun or a pronoun showing toward what 
an action is directed, is an INDIRECT OBJECT. 

Examples. — Give Rover a bone. 
Ask him a question. 

(c) A noun used as an adverb, is called an AD- 
VERBIAL OBJECTIVE. 

Examples. — Rover has run two miles. 
He is going home. 

§65. Following this model, parse briefly the nouns in §27 
and §29, and in the examples in §64. 

Private is a common noun, Masculine, Singular, 
Nominative, Attribute Complement of went. 

§66. A PRONOUN (Latin "pro," meaning "for," 
and "nomen," meaning "noun") is a word used in- 
stead of a noun. 



29 

Examples. — we, you, them, who. 

Note. — Pronouns have Number, Gender and Case, the same 
as nouns. 

§67. PERSON is a distinction in pronouns (and 
sometimes in nouns), which shows their relations 
to the speaker. Pronouns (or nouns) representing 
the speaker, are of the FIRST PERSON; those 
representing persons spoken to, are of the SECOND 
PERSON; those representing persons or things 
spoken of, are of the THIRD PERSON. 

§68. PERSONAL PRONOUNS shozv by their 
form whether they are of the First, Second, or Third 
Person. They are I (thou), you, he, she, and it. 

EXERCISE. Tell the person and gender of each per- 
sonal pronoun. 

§69. Note. — You should study out this exercise for your- 
self. If you master it without help, you may know that you 
will be able to learn Latin or any other language ; if you 
can not do this, it is because you have not yet learned to 
study well. 

THE DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS is 
irregular. Write for yourself the declensions of all the per- 
sonal pronouns, and then commit them to memory. 

Note. — If you make a sentence like this, "Jotm 
took Mary's book," you have nouns in the Nom- 



30 

inative, Possessive, and Objective cases. Now, im- 
agine that John speaks ; — the sentence becomes, "I 
took Mary's book." Imagine that Mary speaks; — 
the sentence becomes, "John took my book." Im- 
agine that the book speaks ; — the sentence becomes, 
"John took me." If you make all the nouns plural, 
so as to be "The boys took the girls' books," and 
imagine that the boys speak first, then the girls, 
and then the books, you will find the pronouns to 
be, we, our, and us. If you use such sentences as, 
"The book is Mary's," and "The books are the 
girls'," in which the noun modified by the Posses- 
sive is omitted, you will find the Possessive forms, 
mine and ours. Now write all these forms in order, 

like this : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. I we 

Poss. my (or mine) our (or ours) 

Obj. me us 

You can work out the declensions of you, he, she, 
and it, in a similar way. The old form, thou, is de- 
clined as follows : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. thou ye 

Poss. thy (or thine) your (or yours) 

Obj. thee you 



3i 

§70. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
need not be declined, as they have the same form 
in the Nominative and Objective, and are not used 
in the Possessive. They are formed by adding self 
to some form of a simple personal pronoun. 

Examples. — myself, himself, yourself. 



§71. Parse all the personal pronouns in the sentences 
that you have analyzed. 

Note. — Follow the same outline as for a noun, except that 
the person must be stated after the class. 



§72. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS are used 
in questions. They are who, which, and what. 

Note. — Who, which and what are not always interrogative 
pronouns, even when found in interrogative sentences. You 
must consider what is the asking word. Think whether the 
question would be answered by the noun for which the pro- 
noun stands. 

§73. DECLENSION of Interrogative Pronouns. 

What, like compound personals, is not declined. 
Who is declined thus : 

Singular and Plural. 
Nom. who 

Poss. whose 

Obj. whom 



32 

§74. RELATIVE PRONOUNS connect their 
clauses to other parts of the sentence. They are 
sometimes called CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 
They are, who, which, what and that. 

Note.— COMPOUND RELATIVES are formed by adding 
ever or soever to the simple relatives. 

§75. Remember that who is always the Nomina- 
tive, and whom the Objective, form, whether In- 
terrogative or Relative. Thus, in speaking or writ- 
ing, yon use the correct form, not merely " because 
it sounds right," but because you know which is 
right, and why it is right. 

Examples. — Whom do you see? Whom is Object 
Complement of see. Therefore it is Objective Case 
and the correct form is whom. 

She is a girl who will succeed. Who is subject 
of will succeed. Therefore it is Nominative Case 
and the correct form is who. 

This man, whom you suspect, is innocent. What 
case is whom? Why? Then what is the correct 
form? 

§76. The ANTECEDENT of a pronoun is the 
noun instead of which it is used. 

Examples. — The picture that we saw was beautiful. 

He is a gentleman, who may be 
trusted. 



33 

§77. RULE. A Pronoun has the same Person, 
Gender and Number as its Antecedent. 

Note. — This rule must be always remembered in parsing 
relative pronouns especially, as it often is the only way of 
telling their person, gender and number. 

§78. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS are words used 
as pronouns, which usually are used as adjectives. 

Notes. — The most common are : 

(a) DEMONSTRATIVES,—^ and that, (plurals, these 
and those). 

(b) INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS— all, any, 
each, either, many, none, another, some, such, etc. 

§79. Analyze the following sentences, and then parse 
the pronouns : 

a. They that seek me early shall find me. 

b. Who are you that come in the night? 

c. We love what is right. 

d. None whom we then saw, now live. 

e. Whose book is this? 

f. Each went into his own house. 

g. People often dislike those whom they have 

injured. 

Note. — c. The clause, what is right, is object complement. 
You may say that the antecedent of what is implied in the 
whole clause. 



34 
§80. PARSE all the pronouns in sections 36, 37 and 39. 

§81. EXERCISE. Write the correct form of pronouns 
in each blank in the following sentences ; and give the reason 
for your choice of case form : 

a. are you looking for? (who or whom). 

b. are you trying to find? 

c. He is a man the king delights to honor. 

d. do I hear at the door? 

e. It is (I or me). 

f. There are many weak people (who or 

whom) we should pity. 

g. I thought that it was (she or her). 

h. (who or whom) do you think it is? 

i. James acknowledged that it was (he or 

him) who broke the window, 
j. The teacher knew he was an honest boy, 

she could trust. 

Note.-(e) See §14. 

§82. An ADJECTIVE (Latin "ad," meaning 
"to," and "jactum," meaning "thrown") is a word 
used to modify a noun (or, sometimes, a pronoun). 

§83. There are many CLASSES OF ADJEC- 
TIVES, such as, DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES, 
PROPER ADJECTIVES, ARTICLES, NUMER- 
ALS, and PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 



35 

§84. PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES are words 
used as adjectives, which often or usually are used 
as pronouns. 

Examples. — Which man ; whatever thing. 

§85. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES express num- 
bers. 

Examples. — three, third, triple. 

§86. The ARTICLES are A, AN and THE. 

THE is DEFINITE, — a weakened form of that. 
A (AN before a vowel sound) is INDEFINITE, 
— a weakened form of one. 

§87. PROPER ADJECTIVES are derived from 
proper nouns. 

Examples. — American, JefTersonian. 

§88. DESCRIPTIVE (or QUALIFYING) AD- 
JECTIVES express some quality of the noun mod- 
ified. 

Examples. — large, rich. 

§89. COMPARISON is a distinction in some 
adjectives (and in some adverbs), which shows the 
DEGREE of the quality. 



36 

§90. There are three DEGREES of COMPARI- 
SON—POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE and SU- 
PERLATIVE. The POSITIVE DEGREE sim- 
ply shows the quality. The COMPARATIVE 
DEGREE shows more (or less) of the quality. The 
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE shows the most (or 
least) of the quality 

Examples. — The large apple. — Positive. 

The larger apple (than the other one). 
— Comparative. 

The largest apple (of them all). — Su- 
perlative. 

§91. FORMS of COMPARISON. Most short 
adjectives {and adverbs) form their Comparatives 
and Superlatives by adding er and est to the Pos- 
itive. Most long adjectives {and adverbs) form 
their Comparatives and Superlatives by prefixing 
more and most to the Positive. Some adjectives 
{and adverbs) are compared irregularly. 



Examples. — 






Pos. 


Cornp. 


Super. 


brave 


brave r 


brave st 


beautiful 


more beautiful 


most beautiful 


bad 


worse 


worst 



Note. — Observe that final e is dropped when a syllable 
beginning with e is added. Why, do you think? 



37 

§92. • COMPARE all of the following adjectives that 
can be compared : 

small, happy, late, ambitious, infinite, useful, 
healthy, good, much, many. 

Note. — Observe the spelling of comparatives and superla- 
tives whose positives end in y. State just what change in 
spelling occurs. 

§93. CAUTION. Always use the comparative 
(not superlative) degree in comparing two persons 
or things. 

Examples. — John is the stronger of the two boys 
(not strongest). 

Which is the better way? (not best 
of two). 

§94. Parse the adjectives in sections 25, 26 and 27. 
Following is a model : 

"This apple is larger than that." Larger is a 
descriptive adjective. Pos. large, Comp. larger, 
Super, largest. It is in the comparative degree, 
and modifies apple as an attribute complement. 

§95. An ADVERB (Latin "ad," meaning "to," 
and "verbum," meaning "verb") is a word used to 
modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. 



38 

§96. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. ADVERBS 
OF TIME show WHEN; ADVERBS OF PLACE 
show WHERE; ADVERBS OF MANNER show 
HOW; ADVERBS OF DEGREE show HOW 
MUCH, or to WHAT extent; MODAL AD- 
VERBS modify the whole statement, and show 
that it is certain, doubtful or negative. 

§97. ADVERB FORMS. Many adverbs have 
the same form as adjectives. Many adverbs are 
formed by adding ly to adjectives. 

Note. — Observe and state the change when the adjective 
ends in le or ic or y; as, simp(le)ly, authentic (al)ly, 
happ(y)ily. 

§98. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. See §91. Com- 
pare the following adverbs : 

fast, earnestly, beautifully, badly (or ill), well, 
much, little. 



§99. CAUTIONS. 

(a) Place adverbs where they will most clearly 
shozv the meaning intended. 

Examples. — We (only) eat only three times a day. 

Listen carefully to what he says (care- 
fully). 



39 

(b) Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. 
Think whether the word modified is a noun or pro- 
noun, or a verb, adjective or adverb. 

Examples. — "The boy looks sharp." Sharp mod- 
ifies boy. 

"The boy looks sharply." Sharply 
modifies looks. 

§100. PARSE the Adverbs in the sentences that you 
have analyzed. Following is a model : 

Sometimes is an adverb of time. It is not com- 
pared. It modifies the verb call. 

§101. A CONJUNCTION (Latin "con," mean- 
ing "together," and "junctum," meaning "joined") 
is a word used to connect sentences or parts of 
sentences. 

§102. Conjunctions are of TWO CLASSES: 

A CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTION connects 
sentences, clauses, phrases or words of the same 
rank in the sentence. 

Examples. — and, or. 

A SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTION connects 
a clause with that on which it depends. 

Examples, — when, where, unless, if. 



4 o 

§103. AN ADVERBIAL CONJUNCTION is a 
word used as a subordinate conjunction, which is 
usually or often used as an adverb. 

Examples. — when, where. 

§104. A CORRELATIVE is two or more words 
used as a single conjunction. 

Examples. — either — or, neither — nor. 

§105. PARSE the Conjunctions in the sentences that you 
have analyzed. Following is a model : 

That is a subordinate conjunction, connecting 
the clause, that he did it, with denied. 

Note. — A Relative Pronoun connects a clause with that 
on which it depends, but we call it a pronoun rather than a 
conjunction because its chief office is to stand for a noun. 

§106. A PREPOSITION (Latin "pre," meaning 
"before," and "positum," meaning "placed") is a 
word used to show the relation between its object 
and the word on which the phrase depends. 

Examples. — with, from, by. 

§107. PARSE the Prepositions in sections 29 and 39. 
Following is a model : 

Of is a preposition, showing the relation betzveen 
Acadia and tale. 



4i 

Note. — In an Infinitive Phrase, to is really a preposition, 
but in parsing we take the whole phrase as a verb. 



§108. An INTERJECTION (Latin "inter," 
meaning " between " and " jactum," meaning 
"thrown") is a word "thrown in" to express strong 
or sudden feeling. 

Examples. — Oh ! Alas ! It has no grammatical 
use in the sentence, and hence is not parsed. 

§109. A VERB (Latin " verbum," meaning 
" word," the " chief word") is a word used as a 
predicate, to express action or existence. 

Examples. — I love. He lives. 

§110. PERSON AND NUMBER in verbs are 
distinctions which correspond to the person and 
number of their subjects. 

§111. INFLECTION of a verb is an orderly 
statement of the person and number forms. 

Inflect the verb love by placing before it the first, the 
second, and the third personal pronouns singular, and then 
plural. Write this neatly, and learn it. Observe carefully 
and state how the third person singular is formed. In the 
same way inflect the verbs advise, rule and hear. 



42 

§112. The verb am {or be) is irregular. It is 
inflected thus: 

Singular. Plural. 

1st. / AM We ARE 

2nd. you are {thou art) you are 

3rd. /i£ (,?/i<? or it) is /7i<ry are 

§113. RULE. A verb must have the same per- 
son and number as its subject. 

§114. CAUTION. Always be sure to use the 
correct person and number form, so that the verb 
will agree with its subject. Remember that s is the 
sign of the singular of a verb in the third person. 

When the subject is compound, think whether the 
meaning makes it really singular or plural. 

Thus: A boy and a girl (both) sing. 

A boy or a girl (one of them) sings. 

§115. TENSE is a distinction in verbs which 
shows the TIME of the action or existence, com- 
pared with the time of the statement. 

§116. The TENSES are Present, Past, Future, 
(Present) Perfect, Past Perfect and Future Perfect. 



43 

§117. The PRESENT TENSE shows action or 
existence at the time of the statement. 

Examples. — I love. He advises. 

§118. The PAST TENSE shows action or exist- 
ence before the time of the statement. 

Examples. — I loved. He advised. 

INFLECT the past tense of the verbs, love, advise, rule, 
hear and be. 



§119. The FUTURE TENSE shows action or 
existence after the time of the statement. 

Examples. — I shall love. He will advise. 

INFLECT the future tense of love, advise, rule, hear and 
be. Be very careful, and do it as follows : 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall (or will) love zve shall (or will) love 
you zvill (or shall) love you will (or shall) love ' 
he will (or shall) love they will (or shall) love 

§120. The (PRESENT) PERFECT TENSE 
shows action or existence completed at the time 
of the statement. 

Examples. — I have loved. He has advised. 

INFLECT the perfect tense of love, advise, rule, hear 
and be. 



44 

§121. The PAST PERFECT TENSE shows ac- 
tion or existence completed at a time before the 
time of the statement. 

Examples. — I had loved. He had advised. 

INFLECT the past perfect tense of love, advise, rule, 
hear and be. 

§122. The FUTURE PERFECT TENSE shows 
action or existence to be completed at a time after 
the time of the statement. 

Examples. — I shall have loved. He will have ad- 
vised 

INFLECT the future perfect tense of the verbs love, etc. 



§123. AUXILIARIES are verbs that are used 
to make certain forms for other verbs. 

The common auxiliaries are, shall, will, be, do, 

HAVE, MAY, CAN, and MUST. 

Note. — Be, do and have are not always auxiliaries. 

§124. TENSE FORMS. Observe and remem- 
ber that the different tenses are distinguished by 
the following forms : 

PRESENT, by the simple form of the verb. 

PAST, regularly by ed added to the present. 
{Final e is dropped before ed.) 



45 
FUTURE, by the auxiliary shall or will. 

PERFECT TENSES, by the auxiliary have, in 
its present, past and future to make the Pres. Per- 
fect, Past Perfect, and Fut. Perfect. 

§125. MODE is a distinction in verbs, which 
shows the manner of the statement. The modes 
are, INDICATIVE IMPERATIVE, POTEN- 
TIAL, SUBJUNCTIVE, INFINITIVES and PAR- 
TICIPLES. 

§126. The INDICATIVE MODE shows the 
statement as a fact. 

Examples. — The king rules. Has the king ruled? 

§127. The IMPERATIVE MODE shows the 
statement as a command or entreaty. 

Examples. — Rule. Be ye ruled, 

§128. The POTENTIAL MODE shows the 
statement as a possibility or duty. 

It is formed by using the auxiliaries may, can, 
and must. It is an almost useless distinction, and 
may be omitted 

Examples. — He can rule. You may go. 



4 6 

§129. The SUBJUNCTIVE MODE shows the 
statement as a condition, doubtfully, or contrary to 
fact. It has some peculiar forms, which should be 
used with much care. 

Examples. — If he were here, he would speak. 

Should it rain, the grass would grow. 

§130. The INFINITIVE merely names the ac- 
tion or existence. 

Hence it is not really a verh, but is a verbal noun. 
(See §45.) The preposition to usually precedes 
the noun, forming an Infinitive phrase, which may 
be called simply an Infinitive. 

Examples. — To love, to advise, to have lived. 

§131. The PARTICIPLES are verbal adjectives. 
The Present Participle is formed by adding "ing," 
and the Past Participle regularly by adding "ed" 
to the simple verb (dropping final e). 

Examples. — lov(e) ing, lov(e) ed, hearing, heard. 

Note. — The FORM of the Present Participle is sometimes 
used as a verbal noun. Do not confuse it with the true 
Participle, which is an adjective. 

Example. — Drawing is a pretty exercise. 



47 

§132. TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS. A TRANSITIVE VERB is one that 
has an object complement. An INTRANSITIVE 
VERB is one that does not have an object com- 
plement. 

Note. — Most Transitive Verbs may be used intransitively 
in a sentence. 

Example. — The dogs hear the sound. Hear is transitive. 
Dogs hear, i. e. Dogs have the sense of hearing. Hear is in- 
transitive. 



§133. VOICE is a distinction in transitive verbs, 
which shows whether the person or thing named 
as the subject is represented as acting or as acted 
on. A verb in the ACTIVE VOICE represents 
the subject as acting. A verb in the PASSIVE 
VOICE represents the subject as acted on. 

Examples. — Gertrude loves her kitten. (Active.) 

The kitten is loved by Gertrude. (Pas- 
sive.) 

Note. — The object complement of the active voice becomes 
the subject when the verb is used in the passive voice. 



4 8 

§134. The PASSIVE FORMS of a verb are 
made by placing the proper forms of the auxiliary 
be, before the past participle of the verb. 

Examples. — I am advised. He was loved. The 
English have been ruled by Victoria. 

INFLECT the passive voice of the verbs love, advise, rule 
and hear, in the six tenses of the Indicative, and give the 
Imperative, the Infinitive, and the Participles. 

Note. — The inflection in order of all the tenses of all the 
modes in both voices, in called the CONJUGATION of a 
verb. 

§135. The PROGRESSIVE FORMS of a verb 
are made by placing the proper forms of the auxil- 
iary be, before the present participle of the verb. 

Examples. — I am advising. He was ruling. To 
be loving. 

§136. The EMPHATIC FORMS of a verb are 
made by placing the proper forms of the auxiliary 
do, before the present form of the verb. 

Examples. — I do love. He did hear. 

§137. The INTERROGATIVE FORMS of a 
verb are made by placing the subject between the 
auxiliary and the rest of the verb. 

Examples. — Is he loved? Was he heard? Do they 
rule? 






49 

§138. The PRINCIPAL PARTS OF A VERB, 
are the Present Indicative, the Past Indicative and 
the Past Participle. 

Note. — All the forms of all verbs are made from these 
in the same way. Hence it is necessary to know the Prin- 
cipal Parts of any verb before we can be sure of using it 
correctly in all forms. 



§139. A REGULAR VERB forms its Past In- 
dicative and Past Participle by adding "ed" to the 
present (dropping final "e" before the "ed"). 



■ample. — 






Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


walk 


zvalked 


zvalked 


love 


lov(e) ed 


lov (e) ed 



§140. An IRREGULAR VERB does not form 
its Past Indie, and Past Part, by adding "ed" to 
the present. 



Examples. — 






Present. 


Past. 


Past Part. 


see 


saw 


seen 


go 


went 


gone 


lie {recline) 


lay 


lain 



5o 

Give the Principal Parts of many verbs, stating whether 
they are regular or irregular. You can usually think what 
they are, thus : 

Present. (I) ride (to-day). 
Past. (I) rode (yesterday). 

Past Part. (I have) ridden (many times in the 
past). 



§141. PARSE the verbs in sections 7, 25, etc. Follow- 
ing is a good order : 



Class — Regular or Irregular. 

Principal Parts 

Kind — Transitive or Intransitive. 

Voice (if Transitive). 

Tense. 

Mode. 

Inflect. 

Person and Number. 

Agreement (§113). 



